study by Anne White

some additional edits by Mrs. Happy Housewife

 

 

INTRODUCTORY NOTES FOR TITUS FLAMININUS

 

Who are we talking about?

 

Titus Quintius Flamininus, a consul and general of Rome, who lived from approximately 227 to 174 B.C. He is also called Titus Quinctius Flamininus. Flamininus (supposed to be pronounced with a long I sound for the second I) is sometimes misspelled Flaminius. Dryden calls this life "Flamininus," but refers to him as "Titus" for most of it

If you've done the previous study, Philopoemen, you've already met Titus Flamininus, as the two crossed paths on several occasions. If you haven't, I would suggest doing Philopoemen first. That way you are already familiar with the time period: the transition period which marked the "old age" of ancient Greece and the rapid growth of the Roman Republic around 200 B.C. In 146 B.C., Greece finally became a Roman province (called Athens); but Rome had been involved in Greek and Macedonian affairs for some time before the final takeover.

 

Recommended Version and Necessary Omissions

 

Titus has many decent values, including a strong interest in seeing justice done (although his motives are sometimes questionable). However, he had a rather nasty brother named Lucius, and the description of what that brother did is the only section of the story that REALLY NEEDS TO BE CUT. Other than that, any copy of Dryden's translation will be fine. I have provided a copy, with the omission made and the text divided into 11 lessons. The 12th lesson will be based on Plutarch's comparison of Philopoemen and Titus Flamininus.

 

Helpful Resources

 

I would suggest finding a map of ancient Greece to look at as you read the story. You will be looking not only for Rome, Greece and Macedon but also for places such as Epirus and Thessaly, Chalcis, and Thebes.

 

If you are interested in reading about some of these events in a history text or encyclopedia, you might look under the First and Second Macedonian wars.

 

You may wish to read the Flamininus chapter from Our Young Folks' Plutarch by Rosalie Kaufman.

 

LESSON 1

 

INTRODUCTION

 

Do you think you could look at a class photograph and pick out the leaders of tomorrow? How would you know?

 

Plutarch often starts out his Lives by giving someone's family story or the details of his childhood or education. Titus Flamininus is different: he comes on the scene as a young man going through the usual Roman military training--but with unusual speed and determination. By the time he is almost thirty, he has been elected to one of the top positions in the government of the Roman Republic.

 

Watch for Titus's tactics as he tries to get Greece to change sides against Macedon.

 

VOCABULARY

 

temper of his mind -- temperament, personality

virtue -- we usually understand this as purity or goodness, but in ancient Greece and Rome it had more to do with "manliness" or a person's whole character

many sharp contests going on -- it was frequently at war

rudiments -- basics

tribune, praetor, aedile, consul -- positions within the government of the Roman Republic; consul was the highest position except for censor (a special position they gave to retired consuls); there were usually two consuls and they were re-elected each year.

falling into an ambuscade -- getting ambushed

alleging -- hinting

sovereignty -- the power of the government

remitted it to the people's choice and suffrage -- left it up to the peoples' vote

propitious -- favourable

decision -- final outcome

had not held much correspondence with the Romans -- had not had much to do with them

began an intercourse -- began negotiations

inured to -- used to putting up with

 

PEOPLE

 

Philip -- Philip V of Macedon, son of Demetrius II (not the Demetrius studied recently in Plutarch), and father of Perseus (studied in Plutarch's Life of Aemilius Paulus)

Hannibal -- General of Carthage, longtime enemy of Rome; studied in Plutarch's Life of Fabius

 

READINGS: Each lesson's reading is given in the text supplied.

 

NARRATION AND DISCUSSION

 

• Titus seems eager to serve those who really need help, rather than those who are able to repay him. But look closely at his motives. What do you think really drives him?
• What was the reason for Greece's willingness to co-operate with Rome?

 

LESSON 2: The Battle of the Aous, 198 B.C.

 

INTRODUCTION

 

Imagine that you work for a big company, and that you've just been promoted to president, with your own secretary and the fancy corner office (with a private bathroom, of course). Since you're the president now, you have your choice of how you spend your days: call a big company meeting and deal with your bothersome board of directors; or stay in your office and order lunch? Go on a business trip to negotiate with someone who's ruthlessly taking over a lot of smaller companies (and who doesn't want you to interfere); or spend the week planning the company Christmas party? Titus decides he prefers the active approach.

 

NOTE

 

You really need to know who the Aetolians were, because they come up repeatedly. The kings Philip and Antiochus may seem to have been the enemies of Titus, but if he had a real, ongoing collective enemy, it was the Aetolians. If you like Star Trek illustrations, they might be the Klingons. And yet they were not an enemy race of monsters--just a confederation of unhappy Greeks.

 

Try looking up "Aetolia" and "Aetolians" online (in a source such as Wikipedia) or in a history encyclopedia that shows the regions of Greece.

 

VOCABULARY

 

predecessors -- those who came before him

taken the field -- gone to battle

skirmishing and scouting -- starting small battles and spying things out

passes -- mountain passes

provisions -- supplies

ostentation of the honor -- showing off one's position

domestic administration -- matters at home

protracting the term of office -- prolonging his consulship

prerogatives -- privileges

straits -- narrow passages

ravine -- a very deep ditch or gorge

engage himself -- get into a battle

was privy to the design -- was in on the plan

foot, horse -- foot soldiers, horse soldiers (cavalry)

the van -- "the vanguard;" the group in the lead or forefront.

alacrity -- cheerful readiness, promptness (Random House College Dictionary)

acclamations -- cheers

pillaged -- plundered; took everything

stinted of their monthly allowance of corn -- deprived of their usual grain allowance (they were short of food)

intelligence -- information

 

NARRATION AND DISCUSSION

 

• Discuss the conduct of the Roman soldiers under Titus.
• Why did he not allow them to rob or molest the civilians (although they did loot Philip's camp)?
• What was the result?

 

LESSON 3

 

INTRODUCTION

 

If you were told that your country was being invaded by a barbarian army, what would you expect them to look like? How would you expect them to act?

 

The Greeks are surprised when they meet this young, well-mannered Roman general named Titus Flamininus, and they decide to trust him.

 

NOTES

 

Pyrrhus was the king of Epirus from 307 to 302 B.C. and again from 295 to 272 B.C. From Philip's World History Encyclopedia: "He defeated the Romans in [280 B.C., 279 B.C., and 275 B.C.], but at ruinously high cost, giving rise to the term 'pyrrhic victory.'"

 

VOCABULARY

 

adjacent -- nearby, adjoining

prospect -- view

withdraw his garrisons -- take away his forts (Roman military bases)

favorers and partisans of Philip -- supporters of the Macedonian king

deference -- respect

amity -- friendship

trying to play the advocate  -- trying to persuade the people

the Senate -- the ruling council in Rome

distinction -- the honor given to someone in high office

 

NARRATION AND DISCUSSION

•  "A Greek in his voice and language, and a lover of honour."  Explain what was meant by this.
• Show how Titus tried to treat Philip (the king of Macedon) fairly. What was Philip's response?
• Explain the situation with the men of Thebes. How does Titus deal with them?
• Why does Titus want to continue the war?

 

LESSON 4--The Battle of Cynoscephalae, 197 B.C.

 

INTRODUCTION

 

Philip of Macedon is now in Thessaly and refuses to leave the Greeks alone, so Titus marches out to fight him. The armies are equally matched in numbers, but the Macedonians discover a problem with their famous phalanx formation: it only works on level ground.

 

Something to watch for: compare their speeches to their men.

 

LINK: Notes and battle diagrams of the Battle of Cynoscephalae

 

VOCABULARY

 

engage -- make war with

hazard -- risk

the most illustrious theater of the world -- the greatest possible arena

antagonists -- enemies

an harangue -- an inspiring speech

mounted an eminence -- went up on a hill

despondency -- despair

some for ambuscade --  some to ambush enemy troops

some for discovery --  some to spy things out

vicissitudes -- changes, variations

succors -- aid

phalanx -- Macedonian method of fighting, where all the soldiers held their shields together to make an impenetrable wall

routed -- beaten

 

Narration and Discussion

 

• Discuss this sentence: "Nor had the approach of these two formidable armies the effect that might have been supposed, to strike into the generals a mutual terror of each other; it rather inspired them with ardor and ambition . . . "
• Compare the speeches that Titus and Philip made to their men.
• How did the Romans win this battle?
• Something to think about: Consider the description of the phalanx. It is " . . . irresistible so long as it is embodied into one, and keeps its order, shield touching shield, all as in a piece; but if it be once broken, not only is the joint-force lost, but the individual soldiers also who composed it; lose each one his own single strength, because of the nature of their armor; and because each of them is strong, rather, as he makes a part of the whole, than in himself." Do you see any similarity to Scripture that refer to the Body of Christ?

 

LESSON 5--The Aftermath

 

INTRODUCTION

 

Who really won the battle?

 

And what would you do if you really, really wanted to annoy Titus?

 

VOCABULARY

 

the main occasion -- the main reason

booty -- loot

galled -- irritated

epigram -- a short verse

elegiac -- can mean sorrowful, but more likely just refers to the structure of the verses

inflicted servitude -- caused slavery

making overtures of submission -- trying to propose terms of surrender

improving his opportunity -- taking advantage of his situation

Antiochus -- Antiochus II (the Great) of Syria; reigned 223-187 B.C.

stimulating -- stirring up

magnitude -- greatness

confederated -- joined together

dispatching -- getting rid of

 

NARRATION AND DISCUSSION

 

• What first led to the hard words and quarrels between the Aetolians and the rest of the army? What made the already-strained relationship with Rome, and Titus in particular, even worse? (Writing idea: write an "elegiac verse" that Titus might have composed about the Aetolians.)
• What were the conditions of surrender that Philip had to agree to?
• "[Hannibal] had begun to level his aim at universal monarchy, but above all he was eager to measure himself with the Romans. Had not, therefore, Titus upon a principle of prudence and foresight, lent all ear to peace, and had Antiochus found the Romans still at war in Greece with Philip, and had these two, the most powerful and warlike princes of that age, confederated for their common interests against the Roman state, Rome might once more have run no less a risk, and been reduced to no less extremities than she had experienced under Hannibal."  Explain why it was so important for Titus to make peace with Philip right then.

 

LESSON 6

 

INTRODUCTION

 

The Greeks seem somewhat puzzled about what the Roman victory means for them, and things aren't helped by the constant agitations of the Aetolians. To prove that Rome wants to give the Greeks "liberty," Titus orders all the towns to be ungarrisoned, even three strategically important ones that the Roman Senate wanted to keep fortified. At last the Greeks seem to get the message, and they cheer so loudly that the vibration knocks birds out of the sky.

 

VOCABULARY

 

garrisoned --  guarded by soldiers

benefactor -- friend, one who helps

prevailed -- won

remitting all impositions upon them -- removing all conditions of Roman rule

the excess of its fluctuation  -- too much movement

so beset was he on every side -- he was surrounded on all sides

throng and concourse of the people -- crowds of stampeding people; traffic

sires -- fathers; ancestors

 

NARRATION AND DISCUSSION

 

• After narrating, discuss one or more of the following questions.  (You don't have to answer them all!)
• The Greeks were asked "whether it were not matter of much consolation to them, that, though their chains weighed heavier, yet they were now smoother and better polished than formerly." Is that a fair description of life under Roman rule?
• If you had to be "chained," which would you prefer? 
• Discuss the other metaphor used: that Rome had "had unshackled the feet of Greece, and tied her up by the neck."
• Something to think about: why is it hard for Titus to see Roman rule from that perspective?
• What kind of image might he prefer to use?
• What does he do here to prove that (from his viewpoint), he really does have the best interests of Greece at heart?
• Discuss the last bit of the passage. In most of Greece's battles, her unjust (unGreek?) generals brought shame; but Titus seemed more Greek than the Greeks. How could this be?
• (For older students who have studied some Greek history) Discuss this statement: "[Except for some notable exceptions], Greece fought all her battles against, and to enslave, herself; she erected all her trophies to her own shame and misery, and was brought to ruin and desolation almost wholly by the guilt and ambition of her great men."

 

LESSON 7

 

INTRODUCTION

 

In this passage Titus continues to dismantle the Macedonian fortifications and to act as the "liberator" of Greece. Big Brother Rome is now not only watching and helping, but owns all the shares in this company…and, seeing this, other countries outside Greece ask to be put under its protection as well.

 

VOCABULARY

 

suppressed their factions -- got rid of some of the small squabbling groups

political exiles --  people who had been banished for political reasons (not criminals)

orator -- a distinguished speaker

the alien tax -- a tax paid by non-citizens

license -- something done improperly

beneficence -- kindness, goodness

admitted the Roman commanders -- acknowledged them as rulers

did homage to them -- see above; bowed before them

from the tribunal -- from the judgment seat

 

NARRATION AND DISCUSSION

 

• "He exhorted them to the practice of obedience to law, of constant justice, and unity, and friendship one towards another." "Titus . . . permitted the Greeks to enjoy their own laws and liberty." Do these things surprise you, coming from a Roman general? What "return" did Titus get on his efforts?
• Would you say that the Greeks' newfound trust in Titus (or in Rome) was wise, or were they taken in? Did they have any choice?

 

LESSON 8

 

INTRODUCTION

 

The story takes a different direction now, as Titus engages "in a most gallant and just war upon Nabis, that most profligate and lawless tyrant of the Lacedaemonians."

(Obviously Plutarch is not planning on writing a Life of Nabis.)

 

Before you start, review what you know of Titus so far. What are the key words that characterize his personality and his leadership? What things are the most important to him?

 

VOCABULARY

 

profligate -- sinful

Lacedaemonians -- Spartans

magnified in their theaters -- praised in public celebrations

touched him to the quick -- bothered him greatly; got under his skin

apology -- reason

must have been attended with the ruin of the other Spartans -- would have caused the ruin of the rest of the Spartans

constraint -- force

redeeming them -- ransoming them, buying them back

manumission -- freeing of slaves

remit -- give, give back

 

NARRATION AND DISCUSSION

 

• The big question here: why did Titus let Nabis go and make peace with him instead of destroying him? What are the three possible reasons that Plutarch suggests?
• Sometimes we can't seem to get enough of the things we want most. Some people crave thrills and excitement to the point that even hang gliding becomes boring. Some people will do almost anything for love and affection. Titus thrives on something else that he just can't get enough of—what is it? How could this desire begin to be a problem for him?

 

LESSON 9 -- Another Thermopylae

 

INTRODUCTION

 

Antiochus of Syria (aided by the Aetolians) arrives in Greece, trying to stir things up against Rome, to liberate the Greeks from their liberators. Titus is not consul at this point, but he comes back as lieutenant to the current consul. His presence seems to ease some of the tension, reminding the Greeks of the trust they had established. ("If you won't do it for Rome, at least do it for Titus.")

 

VOCABULARY

 

abetted -- helped

they never wanted it less -- they never needed it less

employ these lofty professions -- use these high-sounding words

apprehension -- worry

arrest -- stop

Thermopylae -- not the famous battle of 480 B.C. with the Greeks vs. the Persians; this battle at Thermopylae was fought by the Romans against Syria

with zeal and alacrity -- with cheerfulness and speed

sacrifice and libation -- drink offerings to the gods

 

NARRATION AND DISCUSSION

 

• What kind of a role does Titus have during this time when he has been replaced as consul?
• Can you see any signs that his being out of office bothers him?
• How did Titus show "compassionate care for Greece," and especially for the Aetolians, after Antiochus's defeat at Thermopylae?
• Was this unexpected?
• Why was the Roman consul Manius particularly angry with the Chalcidians (the people of Chalcis)?
• Why do you think Titus stepped in for them as well? (Why should he bother?)

 

 

LESSON 10

 

INTRODUCTION

 

As we draw towards the end of the story, Plutarch lingers over some examples of Titus's wit. (Try reading those slowly, just taking one at a time.)

 

The second half of the lesson covers Titus's censor period; if you don't remember, the position of censor was a very honourable one, given only to ex-consuls. Unfortunately this time of Titus's life was full of conflicts with other leaders and even family trouble. (A reminder: this is the only place in the life of Titus where an omission needs to be made. This has already been done in the edited text.)

 

VOCABULARY

 

at variance with anybody -- at odds with anybody

emulation -- jealousy

imputed -- blamed

levity -- lightness, flippancy, giddiness

cashier -- dismiss

spurred on the populace -- stirred up the citizens

dissolute -- sinful

censorship -- the time when he was a censor (the special position given to ex-consuls)

suppliant -- pleading

the story of the supper -- a particularly scandalous event in which Lucius had been involved

degradation -- disgrace

gotten his deserts -- got what he deserved

 

NARRATION AND DISCUSSION

 

• Discuss one or two of Titus's witty remarks. Are they meant to be funny, wise, or both?
• What do you think is Plutarch's purpose in including them here before moving on to less happy things?
• What happened during Cato's censorship?
• Do you agree that the expulsion of Lucius also reflected badly on his brother Titus?
• Was it unfair of Titus to be angry about Cato's actions? (He would probably have acted just as strongly if he had been the censor and it had been Cato's brother.)

 

 

LESSON 11

 

INTRODUCTION

 

The story ends in a different mood, and continues the themes of personal bitterness and revenge. Titus chases his old enemy Hannibal who (spitefully?) commits suicide. Was it Titus's fault? (This is one of the few Lives that doesn't end with the funeral of the hero!)

 

VOCABULARY

 

(Sorry for the long list of vocabulary words this time! Plutarch and Dryden end the story with some high-toned language.)

the wars we have given a relation of -- the wars we have told you of

afforded competent fuel to feed it -- gave him enough food for his ambitious streak

the expiration of his consulship -- when he was no longer consul

took sanctuary -- took refuge

King Prusias -- king of Bithynia, 228-180 B.c.

apprehension -- fear

undiscernable from without -- could not be seen from outside

making away with himself -- killing himself

venous -- hateful, bloody

clemency and magnanimity -- forgiving, generous nature

Scipio Africanus -- Scipio Africanus the Elder, lived from 236-c. 183 B.C.; defeated Hannibal at Zama in 202 B.C., ending the 2nd Punic War; he earned the name Africanus because of that; he was accused of corruption by Cato and was forced to retire in 184 B.C. Scipio Africanus the Younger was his adopted grandson.

vanquished -- conquered

he put no had article upon him -- he wasn't mean to him, laid no hard conditions on him

Pyrrhus -- King of Epirus from 307-302 and 295-272 B.C.

consummate -- excellent, expert

malice and rancor -- hatefulness

impair -- lessen

exculpation -- clearing one's name of guilt

exercise of his faculties -- use of his powers

rods, axes -- the power of Rome (refers to their symbolic weapon, the fasces)

mutability and vicissitude -- changeability

 

NARRATION AND DISCUSSION

 

• Discuss Hannibal's death. Who was at fault?
• Try to make sense of the comparison that the Romans made between Scipio and Titus.
• Before we get into the comparison of Philopoemen and Titus (Lesson 12), make your own assessment of Titus. What did he do that was most praiseworthy? What were his weaknesses and mistakes?
• Do you think that Plutarch has given a balanced picture of his life, as far as you know it? (Does it seem we can trust Plutarch as a narrator?)

 

LESSON 12: Comparison of Philopoemen with Flamininus

 

 

(Text is included)

 

NOTES

 

This is set up differently from the rest of the lessons. I have broken Plutarch's text into shorter paragraphs for ease of discussion. You may wish to pick out one or two points from each paragraph and talk or write about them in more detail. Another way to read the comparison is to 'keep score' on a piece of paper or a whiteboard, either making point-form notes under each person's name, or simply awarding points and seeing if one comes out ahead!

 

My notes and questions are in italics.

 

TEXT

 

First then, as for the greatness of the benefits which Titus conferred on Greece, neither Philopoemen, nor many braver men than he, can make good the parallel. They were Greeks fighting against Greeks, but Titus, a stranger to Greece, fought for her. And at the very time when Philopoemen went over into Crete, destitute of means to succour his besieged countrymen, Titus, by a defeat given to Philip in the heart of Greece, set them and their cities free.

 

Again, if we examine the battles they fought, Philopoemen, whilst he was the Achaeans' general, slew more Greeks than Titus, in aiding the Greeks, slew Macedonians. As to their failings, ambition was Titus's weak side, and obstinacy Philopoemen's.

 

[Do you think Plutarch has Titus and Philopoemen pinned down pretty well here? Show examples that prove or disprove his statement.]

 

In the former, anger was easily kindled; in the latter, it was as hardly quenched. Titus reserved to Philip the royal dignity; he pardoned the Aetolians, and stood their friend; but Philopoemen, exasperated against his country, deprived it of its supremacy over the adjacent villages.

 

Titus was ever constant to those he had once befriended; the other [Philopoemen], upon any offence, as prone to cancel kindnesses. He who had once been a benefactor to the Lacedaemonians, afterwards laid their walls level with the ground, wasted their country, and in the end changed and destroyed the whole frame of their government. He seems, in truth, to have prodigalled away his own life, through passion and perverseness; for he fell upon the Messenians, not with that conduct and caution that characterized the movements of Titus, but with unnecessary and unreasonable haste.

 

[What does it mean 'to prodigal away your own life?']

 

The many battles he fought, and the many trophies he won, may make us ascribe to Philopoemen the more thorough knowledge of war. Titus decided the matter betwixt Philip and himself in two engagements; but Philopoemen came off victorious in ten thousand encounters, to all which fortune had scarcely any pretence, so much were they owing to his skill. Besides, Titus got his renown, assisted by the power of a flourishing Rome; the other flourished under a declined Greece, so that his successes may be accounted his own; in Titus's glory Rome claims a share. The one had brave men under him, the other made his brave, by being over them.

 

[Consider that last sentence. Is that something that you could apply as a leader in other situations? Do you know anyone else of whom that could be said?]

 

And though Philopoemen was unfortunate, certainly, in always being opposed to his countrymen, yet this misfortune is at the same time a proof of his merit. Where the circumstances are the same, superior success can only be ascribed to superior merit. And he had, indeed, to do with the two most warlike nations of all Greece, the Cretans on the one hand, and the Lacedaemonians on the other, and he mastered the craftiest of them by art and the bravest of them by valour.

 

It may also be said that Titus, having his men armed and disciplined to his hand, had in a manner his victories made for him; whereas Philopoemen was forced to introduce a discipline and tactics of his own, and to new-mould and model his soldiers; so that what is of greatest import towards insuring a victory was in his case his own creation, while the other had it ready provided for his benefit. Philopoemen effected many gallant things with his own hand, but Titus none; so much so that one Archedemus, an Aetolian, made it a jest against him that while he, the Aetolian, was running with his drawn sword, where he saw the Macedonians drawn up closest and fighting hardest, Titus was standing still, and with hands stretched out to heaven, praying to the gods for aid.

 

[Is it harder to manage a large army (or business, or church) that's already running well, or to create something from the ground up (or remodel something that needs fixing)? Does Titus deserve less credit than Philopoemen because the Roman army was on the rise?]

 

It is true Titus acquitted himself admirably, both as a governor and as an ambassador; but Philopoemen was no less serviceable and useful to the Achaeans in the capacity of a private man than in that of a commander. He was a private citizen when he restored the Messenians to their liberty, and delivered their city from Nabis; he was also a private citizen when he rescued the Lacedaemonians, and shut the gates of Sparta against the general Diophanes and Titus. He had a nature so truly formed for command that he could govern even the laws themselves for the public good; he did not need to wait for the formality of being elected into command by the governed, but employed their service, if occasion required, at his own discretion; judging that he who understood their real interests was more truly their supreme magistrate, than he whom they had elected to the office.

 

[Is it only up to elected officials to lead people or do important things? Think of other examples from history of 'private citizens' who stepped out to take leadership roles.]

 

The equity, clemency, and humanity of Titus towards the Greeks display a great and generous nature; but the actions of Philopoemen, full of courage, and forward to assert his country's liberty against the Romans, have something yet greater and nobler in them. For it is not as hard a task to gratify the indigent and distressed, as to bear up against and to dare to incur the anger of the powerful. To conclude, since it does not appear to be easy, by any review or discussion, to establish the true difference of their merits and decide to which a preference is due, will it be an unfair award in the case, if we let the Greek bear away the crown for military conduct and warlike skill, and the Roman for justice and clemency?

 

[Is that a bit backwards from the impression we usually have of the democratic, intellectual, beauty-loving Greeks, and the more warlike Romans?]